Short note: International efforts to mitigate climate change

Climate change is a global problem caused by greenhouse gases from all countries, so it needs international cooperation. The main efforts to mitigate it are:

1. IPCC (1988) – set up by WMO and UNEP to assess climate science; its reports form the scientific basis of negotiations.
2. UNFCCC (1992) – adopted at the Rio Earth Summit; aim to stabilise GHG concentrations at a safe level; parties meet yearly at the Conference of the Parties (COP); principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.
3. Kyoto Protocol (1997, in force 2005) – first binding targets: developed (Annex I) countries to cut emissions about 5% below 1990 levels in 2008–2012. Introduced emissions trading, Joint Implementation and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).
4. Paris Agreement (2015, COP21) – all countries set Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs); goal to keep warming well below 2 °C and pursue 1.5 °C; five-yearly global stocktake; climate finance commitments. Nepal ratified it in 2016 and has a net-zero target for 2045.
5. Montreal Protocol (1987) and Kigali Amendment (2016) – the Montreal Protocol phases out CFCs and the Kigali Amendment phases down HFCs; both are also strong greenhouse gases.
6. REDD+ – rewards developing countries for reducing deforestation.
7. Climate funds – Green Climate Fund, Global Environment Facility, Adaptation Fund, and the Loss and Damage Fund (COP27–28).
8. Glasgow (COP26) – agreed to "phase down" coal and cut methane (Global Methane Pledge).
9. COP28 (Dubai) – first global stocktake; call to transition away from fossil fuels.

Limitations: pledges are still not enough for 1.5 °C, finance falls short, and big emitters sometimes withdraw (e.g. the USA withdrew from the Paris Agreement under President Trump, rejoined in 2021, and announced its withdrawal again in 2025).