Environment

Nepal's environment is fragile because of its young mountains, monsoon rain and fast, unplanned development. The major immediate environmental issues and the role of technology in solving them are:

Major immediate environmental issues for Nepal

1. Deforestation and forest degradation – illegal logging, fuelwood use, encroachment and road building.
2. Soil erosion and landslides – fragile young mountains, steep slopes, haphazard rural roads cut by bulldozers.
3. Air pollution – Kathmandu Valley often has PM2.5 far above WHO limits; sources: vehicles, brick kilns, dust, waste burning, forest fires.
4. Water pollution – untreated sewage and industrial waste in rivers (Bagmati, Bishnumati); contaminated drinking water; arsenic in Terai groundwater.
5. Solid waste management – open dumping; the Sisdol/Bancharedanda landfill problem in Kathmandu.
6. Unplanned urbanisation – loss of open space and farmland, traffic, noise.
7. Climate change impacts – glacier melt, GLOF risk, erratic rainfall, floods and droughts, drying springs.
8. Loss of biodiversity – poaching, habitat loss, invasive species.
9. Riverbed mining – excessive sand and gravel extraction (e.g. Chure region).
10. Floods and disasters – Terai floods, landslides, earthquakes.

How technology can help

Technology works best when it is appropriate (low-cost, locally maintainable), combined with good laws (Environment Protection Act, 2076), public awareness and community participation. Example: Nepal's community forestry with improved stoves and biogas has helped increase forest cover to about 45% of the land area.

Environmental issues are harmful effects of human activities on the air, water, land, climate and living things. Some are global (they cross national borders), while others are national/local.

Global environmental issues

1. Climate change and global warming – due to greenhouse gases from fossil fuels, deforestation and agriculture.
2. Ozone layer depletion – CFCs and halons thinned the ozone layer (Antarctic ozone hole); controlled by the Montreal Protocol (1987).
3. Air pollution – vehicles, industry, coal power; about 7 million premature deaths per year (WHO estimate).
4. Water pollution and scarcity – sewage, industrial and agricultural chemicals; over 2 billion people lack safely managed drinking water.
5. Deforestation – especially tropical forests (Amazon, Congo, Southeast Asia).
6. Loss of biodiversity – habitat loss, overexploitation, pollution, invasive species.
7. Land degradation and desertification – overgrazing, poor farming.
8. Acid rain – SO₂ and NOₓ from coal and vehicles.
9. Waste and plastic pollution – plastics in oceans, e-waste, hazardous waste.
10. Population growth and over-consumption – pressure on all resources.

Key environmental issues of Nepal

1. Deforestation and forest degradation – illegal logging, fuelwood use, encroachment and road building.
2. Soil erosion and landslides – fragile young mountains, steep slopes, haphazard rural roads cut by bulldozers.
3. Air pollution – Kathmandu Valley often has PM2.5 far above WHO limits; sources: vehicles, brick kilns, dust, waste burning, forest fires.
4. Water pollution – untreated sewage and industrial waste in rivers (Bagmati, Bishnumati); contaminated drinking water; arsenic in Terai groundwater.
5. Solid waste management – open dumping; the Sisdol/Bancharedanda landfill problem in Kathmandu.
6. Unplanned urbanisation – loss of open space and farmland, traffic, noise.
7. Climate change impacts – glacier melt, GLOF risk, erratic rainfall, floods and droughts, drying springs.
8. Loss of biodiversity – poaching, habitat loss, invasive species.
9. Riverbed mining – excessive sand and gravel extraction (e.g. Chure region).
10. Floods and disasters – Terai floods, landslides, earthquakes.

Nepal's issues are linked with global ones: climate change from global emissions melts Nepal's glaciers, so both national action and global cooperation are needed.

Developing a resource (e.g. a river for hydropower) gives energy and income, but it can damage the river ecosystem, forests and local people's livelihood. The engineer's job is to find a balanced, sustainable solution, not to choose one side.

Scenario (assumed): a 600 MW storage hydropower project on a hill river in Nepal: dam and reservoir flood about 2,000 ha including community forest and farmland, displace 500 households, block fish migration (e.g. asala, mahseer) and reduce downstream flow.

How the engineer should solve it

1. Option and site study – compare alternative sites, dam heights and run-of-river vs storage; choose the one with least ecological and social loss per MW.
2. EIA and public hearing – carry out a full Environmental Impact Assessment as per the Environment Protection Act, 2076; involve local people, experts and the forest office.
3. Mitigation hierarchy – avoid (avoid protected areas, shift alignment), minimise (lower dam height, smaller roads), restore, then offset.
4. Environmental flow – release a minimum flow (in Nepal, generally at least 10% of the minimum monthly average flow, or as set by the EIA) to keep the river alive; build fish ladders or hatcheries.
5. Forest compensation – plant trees for those cut (as per forest rules), protect the catchment to reduce sedimentation.
6. Fair resettlement – compensation, land-for-land, skills training, local jobs and local share investment (e.g. 10% shares for affected people).
7. Benefit sharing – royalty to local governments, rural electrification, roads, schools and health posts.
8. Monitoring – environmental management plan with regular monitoring of water quality, fish and slope stability.

 Resource use  <---- balance ---->  Conservation
 (power, jobs)    EIA, e-flow,     (river, forest,
                  fish ladder,      fish, people)
                  benefit sharing

Thus, with careful design and community participation, the project can produce clean energy while protecting the ecology, achieving sustainable development.

Ecology is the branch of science that studies the relationships of living organisms with each other and with their physical environment (the term was coined by Ernst Haeckel, 1866).

An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature in which a community of living things (biotic components) interacts with the non-living environment (abiotic components) through flow of energy and cycling of materials. Examples: forest, pond, grassland, river, Phewa Lake.

Components of an ecosystem

• Abiotic: sunlight, water, air, soil, temperature, minerals.
• Biotic:
  • Producers (autotrophs) – green plants, algae; make food by photosynthesis.
  • Consumers (heterotrophs) – primary (herbivores), secondary (carnivores), tertiary (top carnivores).
  • Decomposers – bacteria and fungi that break dead matter into nutrients.

Flow of energy and materials through trophic levels

A trophic level is the position of an organism in a food chain.

Sun
 |
 v
Producers (grass)        10,000 kJ   T1
 v
Herbivores (deer)         1,000 kJ   T2
 v
Carnivores (fox)            100 kJ   T3
 v
Top carnivores (tiger)       10 kJ   T4
     \    dead matter    /
      --> Decomposers --> nutrients back to soil

• Energy flow is one-way (unidirectional): sunlight → producers → consumers, and is finally lost as heat. Only about 10% of energy passes from one level to the next (Lindeman's 10% law); the rest is used in respiration and lost as heat. That is why food chains are usually short (4–5 levels) and the energy pyramid is always upright.
• Materials (nutrients) cycle: carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and water move from the environment into producers, through consumers, and back to soil and air through decomposers (biogeochemical cycles). Matter is reused; energy is not.

Optimum utilisation of natural resources means using resources (water, forest, land, minerals, energy) at a level and in a way that gives maximum benefit today without reducing their ability to meet future needs. This is the core idea of sustainable development: "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (Brundtland Report, 1987).

Justification with examples

1. Renewable resources stay renewable if use is below regeneration rate. Example: Nepal's community forestry – user groups harvest timber and fodder according to an operational plan; forest cover has increased to about 45%, while giving income and jobs.
2. Non-renewable resources last longer with efficient use and recycling. Example: recycling metals and plastics; regulated sand mining instead of excessive riverbed mining in the Chure region.
3. Clean energy for growth – example: using Nepal's large hydropower potential (economically feasible about 42,000–43,000 MW is often cited) replaces imported petroleum, reduces pollution, and earns income from export to India and Bangladesh.
4. Water for many uses – multi-purpose projects (irrigation, drinking water, hydropower) and rainwater harvesting use the same water better.
5. Land use planning – protecting fertile land from haphazard urbanisation keeps food security.
6. Economic benefit and equity – steady income from resources (e.g. tourism in national parks like Chitwan) benefits both present and future generations through buffer-zone revenue sharing.
7. Avoids ecological collapse – overuse causes deforestation, erosion, floods and desertification, which destroy the resource base of a society.

Hence optimum utilisation, backed by planning, appropriate technology and community participation, balances economic growth, social welfare and environmental protection, the three pillars of sustainable development.

Global environmental issues are environmental problems that affect the whole Earth and cannot be solved by one country alone.

Solving them needs global cooperation: Montreal Protocol (1987) for ozone, UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement (2015) for climate, and the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992).

Global environmental issues are problems of the environment that affect the whole planet and need international cooperation to solve.

1. Climate change / global warming – rising greenhouse gases from fossil fuels and deforestation; causes glacier melt, sea-level rise and extreme weather.
2. Ozone layer depletion – caused by CFCs; increases harmful UV rays; controlled by the Montreal Protocol (1987).
3. Air pollution – from vehicles, industry and biomass; causes about 7 million early deaths a year (WHO).
4. Acid rain – SO₂ and NOₓ form acids; damage forests, lakes and monuments.
5. Water pollution and scarcity – sewage, chemicals and over-use; spread of water-borne diseases.
6. Deforestation – loss of tropical forests reduces carbon sinks and habitats.
7. Biodiversity loss – extinction of species due to habitat loss and poaching.
8. Desertification and land degradation.
9. Plastic, hazardous and e-waste pollution.

Global efforts: UNFCCC (1992), Kyoto Protocol (1997), Paris Agreement (2015), Convention on Biological Diversity (1992), Basel Convention on hazardous waste, and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (2015–2030).

Major environmental issues in Nepal, causes and mitigation

Why these issues need global effort

1. Climate change is caused globally – Nepal emits only about 0.1% of global GHGs but suffers glacier melt, GLOF, erratic rain and drying springs.
2. Transboundary pollution – smoke and haze from forest fires and crop burning in South Asia reach Nepal; black carbon speeds glacier melting.
3. Shared rivers – the Koshi, Gandaki and Karnali flow into India; floods and water use need regional cooperation.
4. Shared wildlife – tigers, rhinos and elephants move across borders; trade in wildlife parts is international.
5. Limited resources – Nepal needs finance, technology and capacity from developed countries.

Global efforts

• UNFCCC (1992), Kyoto Protocol (1997) and Paris Agreement (2015) – emission cuts; Nepal submitted its NDC and aims at net-zero by 2045.
• Climate finance – Green Climate Fund, Adaptation Fund, Loss and Damage fund (agreed at COP27, 2022).
• REDD+ – payment for reducing emissions from deforestation; Nepal has a carbon-payment agreement with the World Bank.
• Convention on Biological Diversity (1992), CITES, Ramsar Convention – Nepal has 10 Ramsar sites.
• Montreal Protocol – phasing out ozone-depleting substances.
• Regional bodies – ICIMOD (based in Lalitpur) works on Hindu Kush Himalaya issues; SAARC cooperation; transboundary tiger conservation with India.

Current environmental issues are present-day problems caused by human activities that damage air, water, land, climate and living beings, and threaten health and development.

Current global environmental issues

1. Climate change and global warming – due to greenhouse gases from fossil fuels, deforestation and agriculture.
2. Ozone layer depletion – CFCs and halons thinned the ozone layer (Antarctic ozone hole); controlled by the Montreal Protocol (1987).
3. Air pollution – vehicles, industry, coal power; about 7 million premature deaths per year (WHO estimate).
4. Water pollution and scarcity – sewage, industrial and agricultural chemicals; over 2 billion people lack safely managed drinking water.
5. Deforestation – especially tropical forests (Amazon, Congo, Southeast Asia).
6. Loss of biodiversity – habitat loss, overexploitation, pollution, invasive species.
7. Land degradation and desertification – overgrazing, poor farming.
8. Acid rain – SO₂ and NOₓ from coal and vehicles.
9. Waste and plastic pollution – plastics in oceans, e-waste, hazardous waste.
10. Population growth and over-consumption – pressure on all resources.

Current environmental issues of Nepal

1. Deforestation and forest degradation – illegal logging, fuelwood use, encroachment and road building.
2. Soil erosion and landslides – fragile young mountains, steep slopes, haphazard rural roads cut by bulldozers.
3. Air pollution – Kathmandu Valley often has PM2.5 far above WHO limits; sources: vehicles, brick kilns, dust, waste burning, forest fires.
4. Water pollution – untreated sewage and industrial waste in rivers (Bagmati, Bishnumati); contaminated drinking water; arsenic in Terai groundwater.
5. Solid waste management – open dumping; the Sisdol/Bancharedanda landfill problem in Kathmandu.
6. Unplanned urbanisation – loss of open space and farmland, traffic, noise.
7. Climate change impacts – glacier melt, GLOF risk, erratic rainfall, floods and droughts, drying springs.
8. Loss of biodiversity – poaching, habitat loss, invasive species.
9. Riverbed mining – excessive sand and gravel extraction (e.g. Chure region).
10. Floods and disasters – Terai floods, landslides, earthquakes.

Comparison of Nepal's issues with global issues

Similarities: both face climate change, air and water pollution, waste and biodiversity loss. Difference: global problems come mainly from over-consumption and industry, while Nepal's come from poverty and poor planning, and Nepal suffers more from global problems it did not cause. Therefore Nepal needs both local action (laws, technology, awareness) and global support.

Nepal's environment is fragile due to young mountains, monsoon rain, rapid urbanisation and poverty. The major environmental issues are:

1. Deforestation and forest degradation – illegal logging, fuelwood use, encroachment and road building.
2. Soil erosion and landslides – fragile young mountains, steep slopes, haphazard rural roads cut by bulldozers.
3. Air pollution – Kathmandu Valley often has PM2.5 far above WHO limits; sources: vehicles, brick kilns, dust, waste burning, forest fires.
4. Water pollution – untreated sewage and industrial waste in rivers (Bagmati, Bishnumati); contaminated drinking water; arsenic in Terai groundwater.
5. Solid waste management – open dumping; the Sisdol/Bancharedanda landfill problem in Kathmandu.
6. Unplanned urbanisation – loss of open space and farmland, traffic, noise.
7. Climate change impacts – glacier melt, GLOF risk, erratic rainfall, floods and droughts, drying springs.
8. Loss of biodiversity – poaching, habitat loss, invasive species.
9. Riverbed mining – excessive sand and gravel extraction (e.g. Chure region).
10. Floods and disasters – Terai floods, landslides, earthquakes.
11. Noise pollution in cities and haphazard industrial location.
12. Encroachment of wetlands and public land.

Probable strategies to mitigate the issues

General strategies: strict implementation of the Environment Protection Act, 2076 and Regulations 2077, environmental education and awareness, people's participation, use of appropriate and clean technology, coordination among federal, provincial and local governments, and seeking international climate finance.

Nepal faces serious environmental problems due to its fragile geology, monsoon climate, poverty and unplanned development.

1. Deforestation – fuelwood, encroachment and road building (though forest cover has improved to about 45% due to community forestry).
2. Soil erosion and landslides – steep slopes, haphazard bulldozer roads, Chure degradation.
3. Air pollution – in Kathmandu Valley from vehicles, brick kilns, dust and waste burning; PM2.5 often far above WHO limits.
4. Water pollution – sewage in Bagmati and other rivers; arsenic in Terai groundwater.
5. Solid waste – poor segregation and landfill problems.
6. Climate change – glacier melt, GLOF risk, erratic rain, drying springs.
7. Biodiversity loss – poaching and habitat loss.
8. Unplanned urbanisation and riverbed mining.

Mitigation: enforcing the Environment Protection Act, 2076, EIA for projects, clean energy and electric transport, sewage treatment, waste management, community participation and awareness.

Conflict of resources (natural resource conflict) is a disagreement or dispute between individuals, groups, communities, or countries over the access, use, control, ownership and benefit sharing of natural resources such as water, land, forest, minerals and pastures. It arises when demand is greater than supply or when interests differ (e.g. use vs conservation).

Main causes of conflict of natural resources

1. Scarcity – population growth and climate change reduce per-capita availability of water and land.
2. Competing uses – irrigation vs hydropower vs drinking water on the same river; forest for timber vs conservation.
3. Unclear ownership and rights – unclear land titles, traditional rights not recognised by law.
4. Unequal distribution of benefits – local people bear the cost (displacement) while outsiders get the benefit.
5. Development projects – dams, roads and mining that displace people or harm their livelihood.
6. Conservation policies – national parks restricting local use (park–people conflict, human–wildlife conflict).
7. Upstream–downstream and transboundary issues – e.g. Nepal–India rivers (Koshi, Mahakali).
8. Weak governance – corruption, lack of participation, poor law enforcement.
9. Social differences – caste, ethnicity, political interest.

Examples: disputes over sharing irrigation water from a kulo, community forest boundary disputes, conflicts over hydropower in Upper Karnali or Arun-III about local share and royalties, and human–wildlife conflict around Chitwan National Park.

Ecology

Ecology is the scientific study of the relationships between living organisms and their environment (term by Ernst Haeckel, 1866). It studies individuals, populations, communities, ecosystems and the biosphere.

Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a self-sustaining unit of nature where living organisms interact with each other and with their non-living environment through energy flow and nutrient cycling. Examples: forest, pond, grassland.

• Abiotic components: sunlight, air, water, soil, minerals, temperature.
• Biotic components: producers (green plants), consumers (herbivores, carnivores, omnivores) and decomposers (bacteria, fungi).

 Sun -> Producers -> Herbivores -> Carnivores
            ^                          |
            |                          v
       nutrients <---- Decomposers <---+

Energy flows one way and decreases by about 90% at each trophic level (10% law), while nutrients cycle again and again. A healthy ecosystem keeps the resources (water, soil, forest) on which people depend; overuse disturbs it and increases resource conflict.

Conflict of resources (natural resource conflict) is a disagreement or dispute between individuals, groups, communities, or countries over the access, use, control, ownership and benefit sharing of natural resources such as water, land, forest, minerals and pastures. It arises when demand is greater than supply or when interests differ (e.g. use vs conservation).

Main causes:

• Scarcity due to population growth and climate change.
• Competing uses of the same resource (irrigation vs hydropower vs drinking water).
• Unclear ownership and rights; unequal benefit sharing.
• Development projects causing displacement; conservation restrictions (park–people conflict).
• Upstream–downstream and cross-border water issues; weak governance.

Examples in Nepal: water-sharing disputes in farmer-managed irrigation systems, community forest boundary disputes, local opposition and demands for shares in hydropower projects, human–wildlife conflict around national parks, and Nepal–India issues on the Koshi and Mahakali rivers.

Management: clear rights and laws, participatory planning, fair compensation and benefit sharing (royalty, local shares), dialogue and mediation, users' committees, and integrated river basin management.

Conservation of environment means the wise and sustainable use, protection and management of natural resources (forests, water, soil, wildlife, air) so that they continue to benefit present and future generations. Unlike preservation (keeping nature untouched), conservation allows use but within limits.

Doing conservation without hindering development

1. Sustainable development approach – plan projects that balance economic, social and environmental goals.
2. EIA/IEE before projects – identify and reduce impacts at the design stage (Environment Protection Act, 2076).
3. Appropriate and clean technology – renewable energy (hydro, solar), electric vehicles, efficient industries.
4. Mitigation in design – environmental flow in hydropower, wildlife crossings on highways (e.g. East–West Highway), bio-engineering on road slopes.
5. Land-use planning – keep forests, wetlands and fertile land; build in suitable areas.
6. Community participation and benefit sharing – community forestry, buffer-zone programmes; people protect what benefits them.
7. 3R and waste-to-resource – reduce, reuse, recycle; compost and biogas.
8. Green economy – eco-tourism, organic farming and green jobs make conservation profitable.

Example: Nepal's community forestry increased forest cover while supplying timber and income, showing that conservation and development can go together.

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals, microbes) interacting with each other and with their non-living (abiotic) surroundings such as air, water, soil, sunlight and temperature, forming one functional unit linked by energy flow and nutrient cycling. Examples: a forest, a pond, the Phewa lake, a grassland, a farm field.

 Sun -> Producers -> Herbivores -> Carnivores
          |             |             |
          +----> Decomposers <--------+
                     |
          nutrients back to soil/water

Primary reasons of human interventions in the ecosystem

1. Population growth – more people need more food, housing, land and water.
2. Agricultural expansion – forests and wetlands are cleared for farmland; chemical fertilisers and pesticides are used.
3. Urbanisation and infrastructure – roads, cities, dams and hydropower projects fragment habitats and change river flows.
4. Industrialisation – industries take raw materials and release smoke, effluents and solid waste.
5. Demand for energy – firewood collection, fossil fuel burning and mining.
6. Over-exploitation – overgrazing, over-fishing, poaching and illegal timber trade.
7. Poverty and lack of awareness – the poor depend directly on forests and land; people do not see the long-term cost.
8. Introduction of exotic species – invasive weeds such as Mikania and water hyacinth disturb native species.

The results are deforestation, soil erosion, landslides, loss of biodiversity, pollution and climate change.

Feasible solutions

• Population management through education, family planning and women's empowerment.
• Sustainable agriculture – organic farming, integrated pest management, agro-forestry, terrace farming.
• Protected areas and community forestry – national parks, conservation areas, buffer zones and community forest user groups, which have increased forest cover in Nepal.
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA/IEE) before roads, dams and industries, as required by the Environment Protection Act 2076 (2019).
• Clean and alternative energy – hydropower, biogas, solar, improved cook stoves, to cut firewood use.
• Pollution control – treatment of industrial effluent and sewage, solid waste management, emission standards.
• Reforestation and watershed management in degraded hills.
• Awareness and participation – involve local people so that they gain from conservation (e.g. eco-tourism, sharing of park revenue with buffer zone communities).

An ecosystem is a natural unit in which living organisms (biotic components) interact with one another and with their physical environment (abiotic components: sunlight, air, water, soil, minerals) through energy flow and cycling of matter. Examples: forest, lake, river, grassland, desert.

Components:

• Abiotic – sunlight, temperature, water, soil, nutrients.
• Producers – green plants that make food by photosynthesis.
• Consumers – herbivores (primary), carnivores (secondary/tertiary), omnivores.
• Decomposers – bacteria and fungi that break dead matter into nutrients.

Energy flows one way (sun → producers → consumers, with about 90% lost as heat at each trophic level), while nutrients cycle again and again.

Main causes of human interventions in the ecosystem

1. Rapid population growth – more demand for food, land, water and housing.
2. Deforestation for agriculture, settlement, timber and firewood.
3. Urbanisation and infrastructure – roads, airports, hydropower dams and transmission lines cut habitats and change rivers.
4. Industrialisation and mining – raw material extraction and discharge of gases, effluents and solid waste.
5. Modern agriculture – chemical fertilisers, pesticides, monoculture, irrigation.
6. Energy demand – burning of fossil fuels and biomass.
7. Over-exploitation – overgrazing, poaching, over-fishing, sand and stone mining from rivers.
8. Poverty, unemployment and lack of awareness, and weak enforcement of laws.

Conservation of natural resources

Conservation means the wise and sustainable use of natural resources so that they meet present needs while remaining available for future generations. Use is allowed, but in a planned way.

• Examples: community forestry with controlled harvesting, rotational grazing, rainwater harvesting, recycling, energy efficiency, sustainable fishing.

Preservation of natural resources

Preservation means protecting a resource or area from human use, keeping it in its original, untouched state for its own value and for science.

• Examples: core areas of national parks (Chitwan, Sagarmatha), strict nature reserves, protecting an endangered species like the one-horned rhino, seed banks.

Both are needed: preservation for critical habitats and species, conservation for the resources people depend on daily.

Conservation of environment is the wise, planned and sustainable use of natural resources (forest, water, soil, wildlife, minerals) so that present needs are met without reducing the ability of future generations to meet theirs. Protection of environment means preventing damage to the environment from pollution, over-exploitation and harmful activities through laws, institutions and public action.

Conservation measures

• Forest conservation – community forestry, leasehold forestry, afforestation and controlled harvesting.
• Soil conservation – terracing, contour farming, check dams, watershed management.
• Water conservation – rainwater harvesting, recharge ponds, efficient irrigation (drip/sprinkler), protecting springs.
• Energy conservation – efficient appliances, LED lights, public transport, renewable energy.
• Biodiversity conservation – national parks, conservation areas, buffer zones, wildlife corridors.
• 3R principle – reduce, reuse and recycle materials and waste.

Protection measures

• Laws and policies – in Nepal the Environment Protection Act 2076 (2019), Forest Act 2076, National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2029, and pollution standards.
• EIA and IEE before development projects to predict and reduce impacts.
• Pollution control – vehicle emission tests, ban on old vehicles, effluent treatment plants, sanitary landfills.
• Monitoring and enforcement by government bodies (Ministry of Forests and Environment, Department of Environment).
• Public awareness and participation – schools, media, local groups, and campaigns such as clean-up drives.
• International cooperation – Ramsar Convention, CBD, Paris Agreement.

Why it matters: clean air and water, food security, protection from floods and landslides, tourism income and long-term sustainable development all depend on a healthy environment.

Natural resources are materials and energy from nature that people use. Based on whether they can be replaced, they are divided into renewable and non-renewable resources.

Renewable resources

Resources that are naturally replenished in a short time (human time scale), if used wisely.

• Examples: solar energy, wind, water (hydropower), forests, biomass, fish, wildlife, fertile soil.
• They can be used again and again, but some (forest, soil, groundwater) can be exhausted if used faster than they regenerate.
• Nepal is rich in renewable resources: large hydropower potential, forests, solar and biomass.

Non-renewable resources

Resources formed over millions of years and present in a fixed amount; once used they cannot be replaced in human time.

• Examples: coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium, metallic minerals (iron, copper), stone and sand deposits.
• Burning fossil fuels releases CO₂ and causes air pollution and climate change.
• Nepal imports almost all its petroleum, which is a heavy burden on its trade balance.

Wise use: shift to renewable energy, use non-renewable resources efficiently, recycle minerals and manage renewable resources sustainably.